Monthly Archives: September 2010

The Austro-Tai hypothesis

The Kra languages serve as a “missing link” between the Tai-Kadai and Austronesian language families. One striking feature about the Kra languages is that they often preserve their original numerals, while most other Tai-Kadai languages only have numerals of Sinitic origin. These languages are not well-attested, and many are also critically endangered.

Many linguists, such as Laurent Sagart of the French National Centre for Scientific Research, have used the Buyang language to present evidence for an Austro-Tai link. However, from my own research, I have found that the Gelao, Dong, and Mulao/Mulam languages (all spoken in Guizhou, China) have some Austronesian cognates that are not found in Buyang.

The Kam-Sui branch, which includes Dong and Mulao, is probably the closest to the Kra branch.

TENTATIVE LIST OF COGNATES

In general, Gelao is closer to Austronesian than Lachi and Mulao are. Initial glottal stops that come before consonants also seem to be Kradai innovations. Most Kra languages still use non-Sinitic numbers today.

Like the Hmong-Mien languages, the Kra languages often make use of noun prefixes.

English: Gelao / Austronesian

person: (qa33) tshu35 / tao
flower: hu55 ngo53 / bunga
head: (t)ɛ31 lui35 / ulu
nose: (t)e31 ngɛ35 / ijung
fruit: ma35 / buah
tongue: dɯ35 maɯ31 / “hema” or dila
foot: qo35 / qaqay
knee: tu31 qu35 / “tuqur”
hand: pa31 mi31 / (qa)lima
liver: tie35 / atay
breast: pa31 pa35 / susu
eat: ka31 / kain
see: qə33 lɯ35 / kita
hear: nyung35 / denger
star: dung31 dɛ55 / (bi)tuin
sky: lui31 lui31 / langit
road: qə33 ‘lan31 / dalan
house: ‘lei31 / rumah or bale
door: pin53 hɯ31 / pintu
wall: dan31 mu33 eng55 / dingding
air: hei31 / hangin

English: Dong / Austronesian

tooth: pjaan55 / nipin
die: taai55 / matay
salt: jim212 / asin
fog: mun212 / kabut
rain: pjən55 / hujan
fire: pui55 / apoy
near: zaan31 / azan
far: kai55 / zauh
shoot: peng531 / pana
sick: ‘it323 / sakit

English: Lachi / [Mulao] / Austronesian

louse: [xi24 tai53] / kutu
woman: [pu33 li13] mia33 / babae
breast: tcco33
one: tccang33, li33 / isa
two: su31 / hlu24 / dua
three: tie33 / ta24 / tallo
four: pu31 / phu24 / apat
five: ng31 / mu31 / lima
six: nyang31 / nye31 / anim
seven: tie35 / sau31 / pito
eight: nguɛ31 / ghau31 / walo
nine: liu35 / so24 / sia
ten: pɛ31 / ve53 / pulo
to dream: n33 pang55 / “nipi”
to buy: [hly42] / bili

The Pawnee-Crow link

Traditionally, the Caddoan and Siouan languages have been classified as separate, and therefore unrelated, language families. However, after doing lexical comparisons of the Pawnee language (a Caddoan language) and the Crow language (a Siouan language), I have found that the two languages share a remarkably large number of cognates. According to Randolph Graczyk in “A Grammar of Crow,” the first split within the Siouan language was between Crow and “everything else.” With Crow being the most divergent Siouan language, it is likely that linguists had glossed over the Crow language when comparing the Caddoan and Siouan language families. While the Caddoan languages are often considered to share many grammatical features with the Siouan languages, past linguists have not found many lexical similarities. However, when I compared Crow with Pawnee, astonishing lexical similarities showed up between the two languages.

Currently, the hypothetical Macro-Siouan family, which includes Siouan, Caddoan, and sometimes Iroquioan, is still a controversial grouping. Although the late Joseph Greenberg had classified Caddoan and Siouan as separate branches within his proposed Keresiouan branch, I would consider the Caddoan languages to form a branch with the Missouri River Siouan, or Crow-Hidatsa, languages. The Crow language matches up closely with the Pawnee language, while Lakota, Tutelo, and other Siouan bear very distant, and thus less noticeable, relationships to both Crow and Pawnee. In his award-winning publication, American Indian Languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America (p. 262-265), American linguist Lyle Campbell gives Macro-Siouan (alternatively Siouan-Iroquioan-Caddoan-[Yuchi]) a -20% probability value and 75% confidence value, and states that scholars such as Chafe and Rankin have found little evidence for a Siouan-Caddoan relationship. Chafe had found little evidence for lexical correspondences, and much of his work was based on grammatical arguments. However, I believe that Campbell is overly skeptical, and Chafe and Rankin have only compared Caddo, the most divergent of the Caddoan languages, with the core Siouan languages without considering either the more divergent Siouan languages such as Crow, Hidatsa, and Mandan or the core Caddoan languages.

The Pawnees originated in modern-day Nebraska and Kansas, and mostly live in Pawnee County, Oklahoma today. On the other hand, the Crow and Hidatsa, a related tribe, traditionally occupied North Dakota, Montana, and other surrounding regions. As the westernmost group of the Siouan peoples, they had lived in the western Plains region for much longer than the Dakota tribes had. While the Dakota urheimat was most likely in Minnesota and Wisconsin, the Crow and Hidatsa had been long-time residents of the Great Plains. Also, the Crow, Hidatsa, Pawnee, Wichita, and Arikara had been in the Missouri River region for many centuries even organized political alliances with each other (the Three Affiliated Tribes consisted of the Mandan, Hidatsa, and Arikara tribes). Furthermore, based on historical and linguistic evidence, I believe that all of these tribes share a relatively recent common ancestor (“Caddoan-Crow-Hidatsa”) which had split off from the core Siouan languages several thousand years ago.

COGNATES

Below is my list of proposed cognates, which is by no means exhaustive. The selected words are usually very resistant to borrowing. Unlike Greenberg’s and Starostin’s comparative methods, no synonyms have been used in this comparison. The Skiri dialect of Pawnee is used.

Note that Lakota has word forms that are much different from both Crow and Pawnee.

Possible sound correspondences are:

d -> r/h
ch -> s
x -> c

(Legend: C = Crow; P = Pawnee; L = Lakota)

HEAD
C: isshií
P: uúsu’
L: pȟá

BIRD
C: dakáaka
P: rikucki
L: ziŋtkála

EAGLE
C: déaxkaash
P: riítahkaac
L: waŋblí

ABOVE
C: áaka
P: ackat
L: waŋkáta

MOUNTAIN
C: awaxaawé
P: waawikii’ac
L: ȟé

THREE
C: dáawii
P: táwit
L: yámni

FIVE
C: chíaxxu
P: súhuks
L: záptaŋ

BIG
C: isáa
P: kusu’
L: tȟáŋka

CHILD
C: dáaka
P: haa
L: wakȟáŋyeža

LOUSE
C: beé
P: pic
L: héya

FOOT
C: ichí
P: asu’
L: sí

HAND
C: isché
P: iksu’
L: napé

BREAST
C: áache
P: iítu’
L: makhú

SLEEP
C: iháwi
P: itka
L: ištíŋmA

HIT
C: dichí
P: tahik
L: apȟÁ

GIVE
C: kuú
P: uuh
L: k’ú

SHARP
C: íaxxaaxii
P: aciicis
L: pȟé

DRY
C: úuchi
P: taahiis
L: púzA

NAME
C: dáashi
P: hisaask
L: čhažé

COOK
C: óosshee
P: arasik
L: lol’íȟ’aŋ

STEAL
C: ataalí
P: ta’uut
L: manúŋ

FINGER
C: ishkulí
P: ikskiicu’
L: napsú

NEAR
C: áhta
P: tahurar
L: khiyéla

SEW
C: chikáachi
P: icakuusk
L: kaǧéǧe

COUNT
C: chimmí
P: kitawuh
L: yawá

TIE
C: daxchí
P: tawuh
L: kaškÁ

KNOW
C: éhche
P: iita
L: slolyÁ

SPIT
C: shuá
P: hawat
L: kasléčA

VOMIT
C: kalée
P: rahkata’a
L: glépA

TONGUE
C: déeshi
P: haátu’
L: čheží

OTHER
C: hawáta
P: hii-
L: uŋmá

SOURCES

Graczyk, Randolph. A Grammar of Crow: Apsáalooke Aliláau. University of Nebraska Press, 2007.
Parks, Douglas R. and Lula Nora Pratt. A Dictionary of Skiri Pawnee. University of Nebraska Press, 2008.
Ullrich, Jan F, ed. New Lakota Dictionary. Lakota Language Consortium, 2008.

Dictionaries to Get

Dictionaries
(from section PM)

GET:
– Hopi PM1351.Z5 H66 1998
– Cahuilla PM731.Z5 S44 c.2
– Tongva Lulu.com

– Ojibwe E-text
– Lakota PM1023 .N39 2008
– Tutelo Lulu.com
– Osage PM2081.Z5 Q85 2009
– Pawnee (?)
– Mohawk PM1883 .M37 1990

– Choctaw (?) E51 .U553 v.46
– Creek/Muskogee PM991.Z5 M37 2000

– Chumash PM891.Z5 W45 1980; E51 .C15 v.9
– Pomo P25 .C25 v.74
– Zuni PM101 .I51 v.6

Kroeber E51 .C15 v.11
Harrington E51 .U553
Making Dicts PM136 .M35 2002

– Itawis PL5815.Z5 T48
– Yogad PL6135 .G73 1998
– Ibaloi PL5719.Z5 A58 2010

BUY:
Tongva, Tutelo, Ojibwe, Choctaw, Pawnee

CHECK:
Kiliwa E51 .U89 v.109
Popoluca PM4207.Z5 E57 1999; PM4207.Z5 C4 1981
Purepecha PM4297 .C43 2003
Mixtec PM4016.Z5 C34 2008
Zapotec PM4546 .C37 2008
Totonac PM4426.Z5 A85

“I Love You” in various languages

Cheyenne – Ne mohotatse
Greenlandic – Asavakit
Hopi – Nu’umi unangwa’ta
Inuit – Negligevapse
Mohawk – Kanbhik
Navaho – Ayor anosh’ni
Sioux – Techihhila

Maori – Kei te aroha au i a koe
Samoan – Ou te alofa ia te oe

Eurasiatic Languages

“EURASIATIC” LANGUAGES
ENG: P-ALTAIC    FIN/HUNGARIAN    *PIE

DISCLAIMER: Messy notes … comparative method wasn’t even used … done out of boredom
A = Altaic?
E = Indo-European?

all: b-t-n
some: az             *kaylo-, *solwo-
two: zur     kaksi        *dwóh, *dwó
four: do-     neljä A        *kʷetwóres
five: ta-     viisi E        *pénkʷe
big: uk
long: uz            *dluh₂gʰós
small: zuk            *mey-
man: (h)u(r)            *h₂nḗr, *wiHrós
fish: b-l-g    kala        *dʰǵʰu-
bird: sh-z    lintu        *h₂éwis
louse: b-t    täi/tetű A    *knid-, *luhs-
dog: no-     koira E        *ḱwṓ
worm: kur-             *wr̥mi-
tree: mo     puu/fa A    *dóru
forest: or-    metsä/erdő
seed: ur(en)            *sem
leaf: ap    lehti
root: ok             *wréh₂ds
flower: ts-ts-k    kukka/virág
grass: ot             *koino-
skin: er     nahka/bőr    *pel-, *twékos
meat: ez    liha/hús
egg: umugt-     muna A         *h₂ōwyóm
horn: b-r    sarvi E        *keg-, *ḱer-
tail: k-r    häntä/farok
ear: ch-k     korva        *h₂ows-
eye: nu-     silmä        *h₃okʷ-
nose: ku-     nenä E        *hnéh₂s, *nā́s
mouth: am     suu        *h₁oh₁s-
tooth: ish     hammas        *h₃dónts
tongue: hel     kieli A        *dn̥ǵʰwéh₂s
foot: ag, hal     jalka/láb    *pṓds
hand: (g)al     käte- A        *man-
belly: g-d    vatsa
back: a(r)k    selkä/hát
heart: u-r-k    sydän E        *ḱḗr
drink: es    juoda/iszik    *peh₃i-, *h₁egʷʰ-
blow: ul-            *wāt-, *weh₁-
hear: d-t    kuulla        *ḱlew-
think: bodo    ajatella/gondol    *tong-
hit: ch-k            *pleh₂k-
split: gar-
fall: d-z
tie: ya-
count: sa-    laskea/számol
sing: ta-    laulaa
moon: ‘ar    kuu/hold    *mḗh₁n̥s
star: yez    tähti E        *h₂stḗr
water (m)uz    vesi A        *akʷā
rain: mor    sataa        *h₂ekmon-
lake: -ur    järvi/tenger    *h₂ep-
salt: tuz    suola E        *sal-
stone: dol    kivi/kő        *h₂ekmon
dust: toz    pöly E        *pers-
earth: t-l-k    maa        *dʰéǵʰōm
cloud: -ulu-    pilvi A        *nébʰos
smoke: tun    savu/füst    *dʰuh₁mós
fire: al     tuli        *h₁eh₂ter-, *h₁égnis
burn: chada     palaa/ég    *dʰegʷh-, *swel-, *h₁ews-
red: ulan     puna-/piros    *h₁rewdʰós
yellow: sar     kelta-/sárga    *k(e)nhkos
white: ag-     valko-/[fe]hér  *h₂elbʰós
black: kar-     musta/[fe]kete    *swordós, *h₂ems-
full: dol-     täysi/tele A    *pl̥h₁nós
old: e-g     vanha E        *senh₁ó-
blunt: m-z
dry: kur     kuiva A        *ters-
name: er     nimi/név E    *h₁nḗh₃mn̥

CONCLUSIONS
– Saami – originally more related to Mansi and Hungarian?
– Hungarian is likely to have Altaic influences!
– Evidence is somewhat flimsy.
– Uralic – missing link between IE and Altaic?

“EURASIATIC” LANGUAGES
ENG: P-ALTAIC    FIN/HUNGARIAN    *PIE 

A = Altaic?
E = Indo-European?

all: b-t-n
some: az             *kaylo-, *solwo-
two: zur     kaksi        *dwóh, *dwó
four: do-     neljä A        *kʷetwóres
five: ta-     viisi E        *pénkʷe
big: uk
long: uz            *dluh₂gʰós
small: zuk            *mey-
man: (h)u(r)            *h₂nḗr, *wiHrós
fish: b-l-g    kala        *dʰǵʰu-
bird: sh-z    lintu        *h₂éwis
louse: b-t    täi/tetű A    *knid-, *luhs-
dog: no-     koira E        *ḱwṓ
worm: kur-             *wr̥mi-
tree: mo     puu/fa A    *dóru
forest: or-    metsä/erdő
seed: ur(en)            *sem
leaf: ap    lehti
root: ok             *wréh₂ds
flower: ts-ts-k    kukka/virág
grass: ot             *koino-
skin: er     nahka/bőr    *pel-, *twékos
meat: ez    liha/hús
egg: umugt-     muna A         *h₂ōwyóm
horn: b-r    sarvi E        *keg-, *ḱer-
tail: k-r    häntä/farok
ear: ch-k     korva        *h₂ows-
eye: nu-     silmä        *h₃okʷ-
nose: ku-     nenä E        *hnéh₂s, *nā́s
mouth: am     suu        *h₁oh₁s-
tooth: ish     hammas        *h₃dónts
tongue: hel     kieli A        *dn̥ǵʰwéh₂s
foot: ag, hal     jalka/láb    *pṓds
hand: (g)al     käte- A        *man-
belly: g-d    vatsa
back: a(r)k    selkä/hát
heart: u-r-k    sydän E        *ḱḗr
drink: es    juoda/iszik    *peh₃i-, *h₁egʷʰ-
blow: ul-            *wāt-, *weh₁-
hear: d-t    kuulla        *ḱlew-
think: bodo    ajatella/gondol    *tong-
hit: ch-k            *pleh₂k-
split: gar-
fall: d-z
tie: ya-
count: sa-    laskea/számol
sing: ta-    laulaa
moon: ‘ar    kuu/hold    *mḗh₁n̥s
star: yez    tähti E        *h₂stḗr
water (m)uz    vesi A        *akʷā
rain: mor    sataa        *h₂ekmon-
lake: -ur    järvi/tenger    *h₂ep-
salt: tuz    suola E        *sal-
stone: dol    kivi/kő        *h₂ekmon
dust: toz    pöly E        *pers-
earth: t-l-k    maa        *dʰéǵʰōm
cloud: -ulu-    pilvi A        *nébʰos
smoke: tun    savu/füst    *dʰuh₁mós
fire: al     tuli        *h₁eh₂ter-, *h₁égnis
burn: chada     palaa/ég    *dʰegʷh-, *swel-, *h₁ews-
red: ulan     puna-/piros    *h₁rewdʰós
yellow: sar     kelta-/sárga    *k(e)nhkos
white: ag-     valko-/[fe]hér  *h₂elbʰós
black: kar-     musta/[fe]kete    *swordós, *h₂ems-
full: dol-     täysi/tele A    *pl̥h₁nós
old: e-g     vanha E        *senh₁ó-
blunt: m-z
dry: kur     kuiva A        *ters-
name: er     nimi/név E    *h₁nḗh₃mn̥

CONCLUSIONS
– Saami – originally more related to Mansi and Hungarian?
– Hungarian is likely to have Altaic influences!
– Evidence is somewhat flimsy.
– Uralic – missing link between IE and Altaic?

Khmer Lunar Calendar

KHMER LUNAR CALENDAR

1. ជូត Mouse

2. ឆ្លូវ Ox

3. ខាល Tiger

4. ថោះ Rabbit

5. រោង Dragon

6. ម្សាញ់ Serpent

7. មមី Horse

8. មមែ Goat

9. វក Monkey

10. រកា Cock

11. ច Dog

12. កុរ Pig

____________________

cuut, rat (Viet)

cləv, ox

kʰaal, tiger

tʰɑh, rabbit (Viet)

rouŋ, dragon (Chinese)

msaɲ, snake (Viet)

mɔmii, horse

mɔmɛɛ, goat/sheep

vɔɔk, monkey

rɔkaa, chicken/cock

cɑɑ, dog (Viet)

kao, pig (Viet)

____________________

Name of year, English; Khmer name

cuut, rat; kɑndol
cləv, ox; koo (Sanskrit)
kʰaal, tiger; klaa
tʰɑh, rabbit; tʊənsaay
rouŋ, dragon; niek (Sanskrit)
msaɲ, snake; ʔaʔheʔ (Sanskrit)
mɔmii, horse; seh (Sanskrit)
mɔmɛɛ, goat/sheep; pɔpɛɛ/ciem
vɔɔk, monkey; svaa
rɔkaa, chicken/cock; moan
cɑɑ, dog; cʰkae
kao, pig; cruuk

Austric Languages

“AUSTRIC” LANGUAGES
Vietnamese, Austronesian, Khmer, Thai; Hmong

Loanwords avoided. The Romanized Popular Alphabet (RPA) is used for Hmong (note that Hmong has no ending consonants, and those that do appear in the RPA are tone markers, not consonants).

I have researched all the vocabulary on my own.

mày, mo
ta, tayo

vợ, asawa
cá, ikan, trəy, plaa; ntses
chó, aso, cʰkae, mǎa; dev
rắn, ular, …, ŋuu; nab
muỗi, nyamuk, muuh, yuŋ; yoov
chấy, kutu, cay, hǎo; ntshauv
vịt, itik, tie, pèt
chim, manok, baksəy, nók; nog

cây/gậy/gỗ, kayu, cʰəə, máay; ntoo
lá, daun, slǝk, bay; nplooj
cành, dahan/sanga, mɛɛk, kìŋ; ceg
bông, bunga, …, màak; paj
rễ, akar/ugat, rɨh, râak;  cag
xương, tulang, cʔəŋ, kradùuk; txha
trứng, telur, pɔɔŋ, khày; qe
sừng, sungay, snaeŋ, khǎo; kub
đuôi, buntut, kɑntuy, hǎaŋ; tw
lông, bulu, roum, khǒn; plaub
da, kulit, sbaek, nǎŋ; tawv

óc, otak, kʰuə, …; hlwb
tóc, buok, sɑk, phǒm
tai, talinga/tainga, trɑciək; ntseg
tay, tangan, day, mʉʉ; tes
mắt, mata, pnɛɛk, taa; muag
miệng/môi, mulut/bibir, …, pàak
răng, ngipin, tmɨɲ, fan; hniav
lưỡi, lidah, ʔɑndaat, lín; nplaig
lưng, likod, knɑɑŋ, lǎŋ
vai, bahu, smaa, bàa; (xub) pwg
ruột, perut, …, sây; hnyuv
vú, susu, dɑh, nom; dej

uống, minum, pʰək, dʉ̀ʉm; haus
ăn, makan, sii, kin; noj
sợ, takut, kraeŋ, klua; ntshai
ngáp, kuap/hikab, sŋaap, hǎaw; rua lo
mơ, mimpi, soʔbən/sɑp, fǎn
bơi, langoy, hael, wâay
bay, lipad, haǝ, bin; ya
bắn, pana, baɲ, yiŋ; tua
mở, buka, baək, pə̀ət; qhib

đẹp, indah, cʰaət
trẻ, bata, …, ?ɔ̀ɔn
đen, hitam, kmav, dam; dub
đỏ, merah, krɑhɑɑm, daeaeŋ; liab

trời, langit, …, fáa; ntuj
ngày, araw, tŋay, wan; hnub
trăng, bulan, kʰae, dʉan; (hli)
nước, danum, tɨk, náam; dej
mưa, hujan, plieŋ, fǒn; nag
bụi, debu/abuk, …, fùn; hmoov (av)
đá, bato, tmɑɑ, hǐn; (pob)-zeb
tro, abu, kɑmɲɑɑm, thâo; tshauv
đường, jalan/daan, pləv, thaaŋ; kev
mới, baru, tməy, mày; tshiab
xa, jauh, cŋaay, klay; deb

dây, tali, ksae, chʉ̂ak; hlua
nhà, rumah, pteah, bâan; tsev
tên, ngalan, cmʊəh, chʉ̂ʉ; npe

Numbers
một, isa, muəy
hai, dua, pii
ba, tatlo, buən
bốn, apat, buən
năm, lima, pram

Note: Viet and Buyang homelands are very close.
Conclusion: Genetic relationships among the first four languages are very likely. Hmong might be very distantly related to them, but its position is obscure and difficult to ascertain. Hmong also appears to have been extensively influenced by neighboring Tibeto-Burman languages.

See also: http://www2.hawaii.edu/~reid/Combined%20Files/A57.%202005.%20The%20Current%20Status%20of%20Austric.pdf and the relevant Swadesh lists on Wiktionary.

Proto-Altaic

Here are some Proto-Altaic words I constructed by myself. They are organized by their Swadesh list orders.

Compare: http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/query.cgi?root=config&basename=\data\alt\altet

PROTO-ALTAIC
all: b-t-n
some: az
two: zur
four: do-
five: ta-
big: uk
long: uz
small: zuk
man: (h)u(r)
fish: b-l-g
bird: sh-z
louse: b-t
dog: no-
worm: kur-
tree: mo
forest: or-
seed: ur(en)
leaf: ap
root: ok
flower: ts-ts-k
grass: ot
skin: er
meat: ez
egg: umugt-
horn: b-r
tail: k-r
ear: ch-k
eye: nu-
nose: ku-
mouth: am
tooth: ish
tongue: hel
foot: ag, hal
hand: (g)al
bellly: g-d
back: a(r)k
heart: u-r-k
drink: es
blow: ul-
hear: d-t
think: bodo
hit: ch-k
split: gar-
fall: d-z
tie: ya-
count: sa-
sing: ta-
moon: ‘ar
star: yez
water (m)uz
rain: mor
lake: -ur
salt: tuz
stone: dol
dust: toz
earth: t-l-k
cloud: -ulu-
smoke: tun
fire: al
burn: chada
red: ulan
yellow: sar
white: ag-
black: kar-
full: dol-
old: e-g
blunt: m-z
dry: kur
name: er

Rubik’s Cube Tutorial

ANDY’S RUBIK’S CUBE TUTORIAL

PUZZLED? DISCOURAGED?

Well you don’t have to be. Anyone can solve it! You don’t have to be smart to solve it. People of all ages, genders, and backgrounds play with it. Cubing like playing an instrument, except it’s easier and is quicker to pick up!

I have tried to make this tutorial as easy as possible. Do online tutorials puzzle you? Do unclear friends leave you confused? Well this one hopefully won’t. With 28 easy-to-follow pictures and utilizing everyday language, this tutorial will start your way to becoming a cuber!

CUBE NOTATION

We can use several cube formulas to help us solve the cube better. These formulas are written in cube notation, which is explained below.


Here you can see that each side of the cube has a different name:

Front (F), Back (B), Right (R), Left (L), Up (U), Down (D).

The default notation signifies CLOCKWISE movement.

For COUNTERCLOCKWISE movement, apostrophes or i’s are added. For example, counterclosewise R can be:

  • R’ (most frequently used)
  • Ri (less frequently used)

Also see the following table if you’re confused about the notation:

    Move Direction (as view from front) Move Direction (as view from front)
    F Front side right, clockwise F’ Front side left, counterclockwise
    B Back side left, counterclockwise B’ Back side right, clockwise
    R Right side UP R’ Right side DOWN
    L Left side DOWN L’ Left side UP
    U Top side right, clockwise U’ Top side left, counterclockwise
    D Bottom side left, counterclockwise D’ Bottom side right, clockwise


Two examples:

R would mean to make a CLOCKWISE quarter turn of the RIGHT face:

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F’ would mean to make a COUNTERCLOCKWISE quarter turn of the FRONT face:

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Now that you get it, let’s move on!

SOLVING

The easiest way to solve a cube is layer-by-layer. We have 3 layers to solve. The first two layers (“F2L”) are easier to solve, but the last (top, 3rd) layer (LL) is harder to solve partly because the bottom layers have to be preserved. Thus, this tutorial has 4 steps for the last layer, whereas the first two layers have 1 step each.

There are 3 kinds of little cubes or “cubelets.” There are 26 (not 27) cubelets because the inner core does have a cubelet. Thus, a cube has 33-1 = 26 cubelets.

  • CENTERS. 1 sticker cubelets. They’re at the centers, and they never move because they’re attached to screws. There are 6 of them.
  • EDGES. 2 sticker cubelets. They’re at the sides, and there are 12 of them.
  • CORNERS. 3 sticker cubelets. They’re at the corners, and there are 8 of them.

Note that when we solve a cube, only the edges and corners are moved. Centers never move.

Here are 6 basic steps to solving the Rubik’s cube:

  • STEP 1: FIRST LAYER
  • STEP 2: SECOND LAYER
  • STEP 3: TOP LAYER CROSS
  • STEP 4: PLACING THE TOP EDGES
  • STEP 5: SWAPPING THE CORNERS
  • STEP 6: FLIPPING THE CORNERS


STEP 1: FIRST LAYER

STEP 1a: MAKE A CROSS

First match the edges and corners together while making a cross. Like this:

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STEP 1b: CORNERS WITH CROSS

Now put the corners on top. How?

Let’s say you have a white cross. Now we only need corners with white on 1 of 3 sides. So we line the corners right under the places that they’re supposed to be in. For example, if we have a white-red-green corner, the red and green centers right under the white center should be closest to that corner.

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The corners on the upper right-hand side both have white on them.

Use R’D’RD for:

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Use D’R’DR (this is the inverse of R’D’RD, and vice versa) for:

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Use R’DDRDR’D’R for:

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You should end up with this. Now flip it over.

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STEP 2: SECOND LAYER

Now we only need to move some edges in the empty spots (marked by “WE” / “Without Edge” below) to complete the second layer.

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Here’s how to do it:

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Use these 2 formulas to move the edges in.

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If an edge is in the right place in the second layer but is wrongly flipped, use this shortcut formula (basically you do it twice, but watch out for the 2 different U’s!):

  • U’(F’UFURU’R’)U(F’UFURU’R’)


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Now your cube should look like this. Now we have LL (last layer) left!

STEP 3: TOP LAYER CROSS

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These formulas make a cross from either an “L” or a line.

So your cube can have 3 possible positions on the top. 2 are shown above. If your cube doesn’t have either of the 2 positions, then use either one of the above formulas and continue on.

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Now you’ve got a cross!

STEP 4: PLACING THE TOP EDGES

Now the top edges need to be matched with the centers.

Use (RUR’)(URUUR’) for the following condition, in which one edge already matches in front, and the other matches in the back:

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If there are two adjacent matching edges, use (RUR’)(URUUR’)U (there’s an extra U) starting from the left side (in the picture below, that’s the side to directly to the left of the red side):

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Now we only have the top corners left!

STEP 5: SWAPPING THE CORNERS

Now we need to place the corners in their right places. We do so by swapping them around with a special formula.

Use (URU’L’)(UR’U’L), with an already correctly placed corner as your upper-right corner. Starting from other corners will not work.

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(URU’L’)(UR’U’L)

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If there are no corners already in the right place, then apply the (URU’L’)(UR’U’L) formula, and you should get 1 corner that’s in the right place. Apply the formula 1-2 more times.

STEP 6: FLIPPING THE CORNERS

Although the bottom layers will first “mess up,” once finish flipping all the corners the bottom layers will revert back to their original stages.

These formulas flip only the upper-right corners. Some might already be correctly flipped.

Use (D’R’DR)(D’R’DR) for:

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Use (R’D’RD) (R’D’RD) for:

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For each corner you finish flipping, do a U or U’. Do not move anything in the bottom 2 layers. At first the bottom 2 layers are going to be messed up, but they will revert back to their solved states once you flip all the top-layer corners.

Next, you will probably need to realign the layers a bit.

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And now you’re done!

GLOSSARY

  • F2L – first two layers
  • LL – last layer
  • Permute – to change positions (swap)
  • Orient – to flip, turn
  • Algorithm – formula or movement sequence
  • Lube – Lubrication put inside a cube to speed up movements
  • Center: 1 sticker cubelet. They’re at the centers, and they never move because they’re attached to screws. There are 6 of them
  • Edge: 2 sticker cubelet. They’re at the sides, and there are 12 of them.
  • Corner: 3 sticker cubelet. They’re at the corners, and there are 8 of them.
  • Cuber – a Rubik’s Cube enthusiast

FORMULAS TO MEMORIZE

If you memorize these, you won’t have to have the booklet in front of you when you solve the cube!

F2L: 6 formulas

Flipping corners

  • (D’R’DR)(D’R’DR)
  • (R’D’RD) (R’D’RD)


Placing 2nd layer edges

  • URU’R’U’F’UF
  • U’F’UFURU’R’
  • U’(F’UFURU’R’)U(F’UFURU’R’)


LL: 4 formulas

Making a top cross

  • FURU’R’F’
  • FRUR’U’F’


Placing top edges

  • (RUR’)(URUUR’)


Swapping top corners

  • (URU’L’)(UR’U’L)

Cube Notation

Before

U Face, turned 90° clockwise
D Face, turned 90° clockwise
F Face, turned 90° clockwise
B Face, turned 90° clockwise
L Face, turned 90° clockwise
R Face, turned 90° clockwise

Rotation Notation: A letter means turn that side clockwise 90°.

For example, F means turn the F side clockwise 90°.
A letter with an apostrophe next to it means turn that side counterclockwise 90°.
F’ means turn the F side counterclockwise 90°.

We will be using this to do the transformations.

UCSD Guide

UCSD Guide

Pro’s of UCSD over Berkeley and UCLA
– Berkeley and UCLA are often overrated. Your success in education, in the job market, and in everything else in life is dependent on YOU as an individual, not the name of the college.
– Better registration. Science clases are often unavailable to many students at Berkeley and UCLA due to high demand. According to many Berkeley students, registration is a nightmare.
– Safe neighborhood. Berkeley and UCLA are in urban, higher-crime environments. UCSD, on the other hand, is located in the very affluent community of La Jolla, a suburb north of San Diego.
– More outdoor, natural environment. UCSD is a paradise for runners, bikers, swimmers, surfers, and other outdoor-loving people! The beach is also really close (though not adjacent) to campus.
– International experience: Mexico is about a 30-minute drive away!

Berkeley and UCLA are definitely amazing schools that truly deserve the great reputation that they have. For certain liberal arts majors and engineering disciplines, Berkeley and UCLA would have an edge over UCSD. For nursing, UC Irvine would be better than UCSD. UCSD, however, is greatly rising in university rankings, especially in the sciences.

UCSD statistics

Fall 2008
Total Enrollment: 28,200
Undergraduate Enrollment: 22,518
Graduate Enrollment: 5,682

Undergraduates by Ethnicity:
African American: 1.5%
American Indian: 0.4%
Asian/Pacific Islander: 48.6%
Chicano/Latino: 12.2%
White: 26.7%
Other: 1.6%
Not Stated: 5.8%
International 3.2%

Chancellor: Marye Anne Fox
[Chancellor = Principal]
Faculty: 1,471

Founded: 1959 (4th-newest UC)
Location: La Jolla, San Diego County, California, USA
[Pronounced “Lah Hoyah”]
Campus: Suburban, 2,124 acres
Newspaper: UCSD Guardian
Colors: Navy Blue and Gold
Athletic Team: Tritons
Mascot: King Triton

Fall 2009
47,037 freshman applications
37.5% offered admission

Tips before you apply:
– Try to get 680 or over on the writing section of the SAT I if you haven’t done so already. This will fulfill the UC entry-level writing requirement. A passing score (3 or above) on the AP Lit or AP English tests can also fulfill this requirement. If not, you will take the UC Analytical Writing Placement Exam in May of senior year, which may be taken only once.
– Try to get 700 or over on a foreign language SAT if you’re atttending Eleanor Roosevelt College. This will exempt you from taking foreign language GE’s. A passing score (3 or above) on any foreign language AP exam also counts.
– Try to take AP Calculus AB or BC in high school. This may save you from having to take math placement exams.
– (To get a head start on your application) For your extracurricular activities, list them all out and describe:
1) the number of hours per week spent on the activity
2) the number of weeks per year spent on the activity
3) the number of years spent on the activity
4) written description of the activity
Try to round off and approximate the number of hours/weeks, since colleges just want to have a rough idea of how much time you’ve spent on an activity.
– Each campus costs $60 to apply to. Applying to all UC campuses will cost $540. Credit card is accepted.
– No letters of recommendation are required for UC’s.
– After you’ve finished taking all your SAT’s, make sure that you send an official score report of all your SAT’s to all of the colleges you will apply to via College Board’s website! It costs around $10 or so to send a report to a single college. Failure to do so jeopardize your admission!
– Be prepared to visit San Diego two times before you actually start college. UC San Diego holds an Admit Day on the first Saturday of April, Scholars’ Day in early March for their top admits, and mandatory orientation sessions from June – September. Southwest Airlines is a good option for those who do not wish to drive down to San Diego. Also try to tour San Diego and the surrounding area – you will get to know your surroundings much better! I can give you an informal tour around UCSD if you’re interested. Just e-mail me at andhsiu@gmail.com
– Budget at least $1,000 before college begins. Costs include:
$60 – application fee (due November 30)
$100 – SIR deposit (due May 1)
$650 – housing deposit (due June 30)
~$150 – orientation fee (due May or June)


Essay prompts for UC application:

Prompt #1 (freshman applicants)
Describe the world you come from — for example, your family, community or school — and tell us how your world has shaped your dreams and aspirations.

Prompt #2 (all applicants)
Tell us about a personal quality, talent, accomplishment, contribution or experience that is important to you. What about this quality or accomplishment makes you proud and how does it relate to the person you are?

Essay #3 (optional)
You can write ANYTHING you want to UC!

Respond to EACH prompt in about 1,000 words. That would be 2,000 words total. Going a little over 1,000 words is fine.

The Six College System
“Six colleges, one great University”

On your UC application, you will be asked to rank UCSD colleges based on preference. The college you choose DOES matter, since all their housing, locations, general education requirements, themes, and other factors differ A LOT from each other! Rank your colleges based on your career goals, personality type, etc.

Having six colleges allows break UCSD down into manageable chunks and have a sense of being in a smaller, close-knit community. It would be quite easy to feel lost in a large campus that doesn’t have such a system. Thus, UCSD has been nicknamed the “Oxford of the West” because of this. (Oxford University in England is split into many small colleges.) UC Santa Cruz also has a similar system.

Often, the colleges do not have enough room for all students. You will then be directed to your second-choice college if that happens. If not, you will be directed to your third choice, fourth choice, and so on.

UCSD college descriptions:
http://www.ucsd.edu/portal/site/ucsd/menuitem.135225ab0c7ce3c0c0020010d34b01ca/?vgnextoid=14d9a78f2c741110a78f2c741110cdca5105RCRD

Each college is different:
Marshall – more community and public service oriented; stresses good citizenship
Muir – most flexible GE’s (general education: basic classes that everyone has to take regardless of major); also the hardest college to get into due to high demand
Revelle – difficult but very well-rounded GE’s, oldest college
Roosevelt (“ERC”) – international emphases; GE’s include lots of history and liberal arts; nicest dorms; Main GE program is called MMW (Making of the Modern World), which is a 2-year writing program; closest to gym and park; International House, where foreign students and professors live, is in ERC
Warren – best for engineering majors, since the GE’s can be tapered to fit your major; has the most single dorms; closest to engineering buildings; in center of campus
Sixth – only a few years old, and does not have a new name yet; GE’s highly emphasize art. Main GE program is called CAT (Culture, Art and Technology); in center of campus

All the colleges, except for Sixth, were named after real people!

For info on their GE’s:
http://www.ucsd.edu/portal/site/ucsd/menuitem.e25088fc289ee30b4bb91c8ad74b01ca/?vgnextoid=c0dedc247ef63110VgnVCM10000045b410acRCRD

My rankings were:
Eleanor Roosevelt:1, John Muir:2, Thurgood Marshall:3, Sixth College:4, Earl Warren:5, Revelle:6

Key phrases to help you remember the colleges’ themes:
Marshall – Community service
Muir – Flexibility
Revelle – Difficult, traditional curriculum
Roosevelt – International
Warren – Science and enginerring
Sixth – Artsy

Filling Out the Application

Tips for applying:
– If you EVER got 1st, 2nd, or 3rd place in anything, DEFINITELY put mention that you got 1st, 2nd, or 3rd place in your college application.
– Mention how many years, and which years, you have been doing an acitivity for, especially if it is a leadership role.
– For your extracurricular activities, list them all out and describe:
1) the number of hours per week spent on the activity
2) the number of weeks per year spent on the activity
3) the number of years spent on the activity
4) written description of the activity
Try to round off and approximate the number of hours/weeks, since colleges just want to have a rough idea of how much time you’ve spent on an activity.
– Make sure to save your log-in info, such as application ID, URL’s, usernames, passwords, and other information in a separate document. Doing so will save lots of time and trouble!
– Summer school and community college classes can be tricky to fill out. Make sure to consult your guidance counselor if you’re not sure about how to do so!
– Submit your application a few days before Thanksgiving. On November 1, when the application is out, fill it out right away. Have your application completely ready to be submitted by around November 15-20. Review your application for several days and make any changes necessary. November 29 and 30 are bad dates to submit, since procrastinating applicants often crash the UC website on those dates!

UCSD admissions process

UCSD admits students on a point-based system.

2009 statistics
Total cutoff: 7738
Regents cutoff (academics only): 7258
Average weighted GPA: 4.09
Average SAT I: 1966

Regents scholarships include:
– $6,000 tuition fee
– automatic entry into honors program
– priority for class registration

For 2009, the average Regents Scholar had a 2246 SAT and 4.3+ GPA

Anyone who falls under the cutoff score either gets placed into winter quarter admission (which means the student can spend the fall quarter at a local community college) if they are borderline, or simply rejected.

THE POINT SYSTEM
(From: http://www.ucsd.edu/prospective-students/admissions/undergraduate-admissions/freshmen/process.html)

Step I: Academic review     Maximum Consideration
Uncapped Grade Point Average (GPA)     4,500
Scores of all required exams     3,200
[The above two are added together to determine who will get Regents.]
Number of “a-g” courses beyond the minimum     500
[Most Lynbrook students have already fulfilled this.]

Step II: Additional academic factors
Eligibility in the Local Context (ELC)     300
[Top 4% of graduating class. This ranking is based on unweighted GPA. Make sure you agree to have Lynbrook send your personal academic information to third parties such as universities, or you will not be considered for ELC. If you are determined to be an ELC student by the University of California, you should receive a letter in the mail. If not, you can check with the Lynbrook office.]
Educational environment     300
[Lynbrook is not eligible due to a high API score and being in a non-disaadvantaged community.]

Step III: Socioeconomic factors
Low family income     300
First generation college attendance     300

Step IV: Personal characteristics and achievement factors
Demonstrated leadership     300
Special talents/ achievements/ awards     300
Community and volunteer service     300
Participation in academic development preparation programs     300
Special circumstances/ personal challenges     500

Total possible score is 11,100.


How to calculate your score:

STEP I
GPA calculation:
– Multiply your GPA by 1,000.
– 8 honors / AP courses (for grades 10-11) max
– capped at 4.50

For example,
– 0.10 weighted GPA = 100 points
– 4.00 weighted GPA = 4,000 points

SAT calculation:
1) Add your SAT I score and best two SAT II score.
2) Multiply the sum by 0.8.
3) Round off to the nearest whole digit.

For example, I have a 2968 for all my SAT’s, since it’s 0.8*(2110 + 800 + 800) = 2968.

Add the GPA and SAT points together, and that’s your Regents eligibility score.
Add 500 points for a-g courses taken. This does not count towards your Regents eligibility score. Most Lynbrook students will already have these 500 points.

Except for ELC students, most Lynbrook students are not eligible for STEP II and STEP III points. Add 300 points if you are ELC. STEP IV is difficult to calculate. Call the UCSD admissions office to see how they determine the scores. Usually about 100-150 points are added for each award, leadership role, community service hours, etc. performed.

Myth debunking:
– Going to a high school with a high API score, such as Lynbrook or Monta Vista, does not give you any points at all. Only going to high schools with low API scores will help you attain points (up to 300 points for “Educational environment”).
– Community and volunteer service is only significant for schools such as Berkeley and especially UCLA. Community and volunteer service can only gain you a maximum of 300 points. At least 100 hours of service must be done within a continuous time span of within 2 years in order to gain 150 points or so.
– For UCSD you get no points whatsoever if you just join a sport or club. You only get points if you get a 1st, 2nd, 3rd place award or if you hold a leadership position, such as club president / vice president, team captain, etc.
– Applicants do not receive any points for the names of the courses taken, sequence courses are taken in, or for the number of AP courses taken. Unweighted GPA is only used for ELC consideration and not for admission itself.
– Essays rarely count for UCSD. Personally I received zero points for my essay, even though it most likely helped me gain admission to UC Berkeley. UCSD amissions officers use essays to search for points that they could add onto your profile. They only help admissions officers clarify extracurricular activities, identify life difficulties, and see if you’ve done anything else that was not mentioned on the other parts of your application. For example, if I mentioned something about my life difficulties or volunteering, then they take that from my essay and add, say, 300 points. They do not want a story. They want plain, simple facts. Please do note that Berkeley and UCLA look at essays far differently than this. Berkeley and UCLA evaluate students without point-based system, and application essays can often mean the difference between admission and rejection for those two campuses.

Contact UCSD admissions
Call (858) 534-4831
– The admissions office says they encourage students to call in for information. Go ahead – don’t be shy!
– Try to call on a weekday. They close at 5 pm.
– Allow one hour for the phone call, since they may place callers on hold.
– If you do call, tell them, ask for “Debbie,” tell them that you’re from Lynbrook, and that Andrew introduced you to them.

UCSD has a little more than 20 admissions officers who work regular 40 hour weeks at the Triton Center, which is a building at UCSD. The lady I talked to over the phone, Debbie, used to live in the Santa Cruz Mountains, but later moved to San Diego. She has been working at the UCSD admissions office for several years now.

By mail

Admissions office:
University of California, San Diego
Office of Admissions and Relations with Schools
402 University Center, 3rd Floor
La Jolla, CA 92093-0013

Transcript verifications:
University of California, San Diego
Office of Admissions and Relations with Schools
9500 Gilman Dr., Dept 0021
La Jolla, CA 92093-0021

Decisions come out in mid-March.

I’m admitted! Now what?
First of all, CONGRATULATIONS on your admission to UC San Diego! UCSD is a world top-ranked university that really isn’t easy to get into!

For those of you who are admitted, once you log into the UCSD website, click on “Housing Application” on the left-hand menu. All you have to do is to click on a button once. That will reserve your housing for you. You don’t even have to turn in your SIR (Statement of Intent to Register) before you register.

IT IS HIGHLY IMPORTANT that you reserve your housing as soon as your offer of admission becomes available online. If you do not do so, you may become stuck with undesirable housing!

Try to maintain at least a 3.0 weighted GPA (3.0 unweighted for UC Berkeley and UCLA) the second semester of your senior year, although UCSD only requires a 3.0 weighted GPA for first and second semesters COMBINED. Any D’s or F’s will result in your admission being rescinded!

SIR
SIR (Statement of Intent to Register) comes along with a $100 non-refundable deposit. A good date to submit your SIR would be around April 20. Be sure to call a university by telephone if you make an SIR mistake.

After SIR

Housing – A Basic Overview

You will be asked to complete the second portion of the housing contract in late May or early June. The contract can only be filled out once you have activated your UCSD e-mail account, which will become available for activation at about the same time. A $650 deposit via eCheck (simply provide information from your check) is required.

You will be required to choose from:

Residence Hall – “Dorms.” These are better places to get to know more people and become closer to your community. More meal points are included, and fewer chores need to be done! Consider living in one for your first and second years.
Apartment – These are real apartments. They have full kitchens, bathrooms, and other utilities, and are much more spacious than res halls. However, they are more isolated from the community than res halls are. Consider living in one for your third and fourth years.

(For both res halls and apartments:)
Single – one room, one person.
Double – one room, two roomates.
Triple – one room, three roomates.

Select the preferences that you would like your roommate to have.

Preferences
Questions 11, 12 and 14 are for College background information and will not be used in the assignment process.

1.     I smoke.     Yes     No
Select NO

2.     I am bothered by smoke.     Yes     No
Select YES

3.     I am very meticulous about my room and need it to be clean all the time.     Yes     No     No Preference
Select YES

4.     I am tolerant of alcohol use.     Yes     No     No Preference
Select NO

5.     I am tolerant of my roommate having guests stay overnight in our room.     Yes     No     No Preference
Up to you. Personally I selected “no.”

6.     I go to bed at midnight or later on weekdays.     Yes     No     No Preference
Up to you. Personally I selected “no.”

7.     I am awake early each weekday morning.     Yes     No     No Preference\
Up to you. Personally I selected “yes.”

8.     I consider myself outgoing and prefer to be housed with someone who is also outgoing.     Yes     No     No Preference
Up to you. Personally I selected “yes.”

9.     I am comfortable sharing my belongings with my roommate.     Yes     No     No Preference
Up to you. Personally I selected “no” (to prevent theft, etc.)

10.     I frequently like to study with music playing.     Yes     No     No Preference
Select NO, even if you do listen to music with headphones or earbuds. You wouldn’t want a roomate who plays loud music all the time.

11.     List what you would consider characteristics of a good roommate/suite mate
( 50 character maximum ):
12.     Other living considerations
( 50 character maximum ):
13.     Do you prefer:
Outdoor Activities     Indoor Activities
14.     Favorite recreations and hobbies
( 50 character maximum ):
15.
Academic Interest:
Humanities/Fine Arts     Engineering     Social Sciences     Math/Sciences     Undecided
16.
Payment Plan (Financial Aid students are encouraged to select Quarterly):
Monthly     Quarterly     Paid in Full

I selected QUARTERLY.

E-mail account
Your UCSD e-mail account will be available in late May. Unfortunately, UCSD does not let students choose their own e-mails, since they are all automatically pre-assigned by the school system. Make sure to check it often, since important information, such as orientation and housing notifications, will often be sent to your e-mail.

Log in at http://webmail.ucsd.edu

Orientation
Be ready to attend a mandatory UCSD orientation session in June or September. You will meet new people, get your photo taken, and do lots of fun stuff. Each college’s orientation varies a lot.

Chemistry Placement Exam
Take online at: http://chem-web.ucsd.edu/academic/placement/

You will be recommended for Chem 4, Chem 6A, or Chem 6AH. Personally I would recommend Chem 6A for most Lynbrook students, and Chem 6AH for those who did really well in AP Chemistry and AP Calculus.